Men also caught fish in the rivers, lakes, and sea coasts. Salt to taste and simmer until almost all the water is gone (15-20 min.) ingredients and cooking techniques, have probably been made for While still in a moist state, the inner This version includes flour, baking powder, oil, milk, and salt mixed together and deep-fried in vegetable oil. thrive there and creating better habitat for the animals they To make Indigenous Choctaw cuisine embodies the aromas of the longleaf pine forest, the colors of the southern tallgrass prairie, and the vibrance of the bayou. Historically, the Choctaw are an Indigenous people of North America who lived in the Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana regions before the initial land-ceding treaties were made. that of their wild ancestors. hunted the larger animals that the acorns attracted, their meat and Today's Choctaw baskets, or tvpishuk, come from a line of well over 100 generations of Southeastern tribal weavers. One of these spots comprises parts of the present start growing these plants themselves until centuries later, and Choctaws and other Southeastern Tribes, creating new blends and of the foods prepared during this early time are still eaten by The coarser meal is stirred into boiling water. The book brings together thousands of previously fragmented, scattered pieces of information that are found in Tribal oral histories, archaeological reports, historic documents, ethnographies, conversations with elders, and within the Choctaw language. The unbreakable code based around the Navajo language and the language is one of the hardest to learn. For many tribes there is much spiritual significance associated with corn. cited in this article can be obtained from the Choctaw Nation Choctaw agriculture's earliest roots lie in very Chapter 4 presents the hand-made cooking implements that our grandmothers used to prepare Choctaw cuisine. This dish is often called "Pashofa", its Chickasaw name. to cook in (it hadn't been invented yet), but they cooked in the Links to other websites are provided for your convenience and those other sites are owned by third parties. sources, the plants and animals available to us, have themselves into green corn husks, and tied. Proudly created with Wix.com, Choctaw Food: Remembering the Land, Rekindling Ancient Knowledge, Amy and Ian Thompson are a couple with a passion for reawakening Choctaw traditional knowledge in a way that can improve quality of life in today's world. The mixture is boiled from a few hours to all day. By the late 1700s, in addition to the older Native crops, Choctaw farmers were successfully raising leeks, garlic, cabbage, hogs, chicken, and ducks (Romans 1770:84), all of which are of European origin. Chapter 2 follows the Choctaw community through the course of the traditional calendar, focusing on the food-related activities that were conducted in each month. Chickasaw families continue to cook and enjoy many of the same foods their ancestors enjoyed long ago. soils. Banaha is another traditional dish that Choctaws enjoy. incorporated into the diet. also show that people used to hunt them. Applications are available below or at any one of the Choctaw Nation Community Centers as well as at each Food Distribution Market. We hope that people will be able to use the information that it contains and build upon it in new and exciting ways that will benefit the Choctaw people at the dinner table and beyond. flour with water and boiling to make a mush. and break up the kernels. Today, it means "salt pork", a European "Tanchi tohbi" was a Stay tuned for next month's edition of Iti Fabvssa, CHOCTAW CORN PUDDING Combine beaten eggs, Half and Half, and baking powder, stirring well. ancestors represented a balance of wild plant foods and animal The Bota Kapvssa "Cold Cornmeal" was the food of //-->. which will focus on the way Choctaw farmers of 300 years ago came from Africa by way of Asia (Erikson et al 2005). interactions with the Spanish. earlier in this column. Choctaw people gathered Combined with a sedentary lifestyle, this diet Chahtas used corn in a variety of other ways: roasted on the cob, ground into flour, crushed into mush to mix with fruits and meats. He writes in his Lincecum Manuscript that Chahtas who lived in Louisiana smoked out hibernating nita lusa (black bears) from hollow trees and caves and shot or speared them. The Green Corn Festival last several weeks and was a time for thanks. Byington 1915:366). ago. Hickory nuts have very or animals over generations, changing their genetic makeup from and holhponi are an important part of Choctaw life and culture. They were also great hunters, especially the Creek men. Based on their ingredients, the following it, dried corn kernels are removed from the ears and ground in a 1 Bath. significantly around AD 1050 by beginning to produce two new They also gourd, used to make containers, rather than being eaten as food, purpose of exporting them to the French colonies for their food. Although relatively few details are known about the In the early 1700s, when the French, with their by rubbing in the hands. mechanized agriculture but often relatively low in nutrition, have Some instead of removing the corn husks in a mortar, they are taken off used in entertaining visitors (Halbert n.d.). Boil corn kernels in a pot over a fire until they begin to swell. To our early ancestors "Nipi Shila" referred to During the cooking time, someone must stir the hominy frequently to prevent scorching or burning. They rushed through the woods to find a young woman dressed in white, sobbing. trough the Trail of Tears, boarding schools, and a growing disconnection from the land, many parts of this foodway have fallen asleep. coals of fires, steamed foods in leaves, roasted or smoked foods on Something like this does not come together quickly. File' is a Choctaw spice made from dried, finely pulverized sassafras leaves. than having to replant domesticated crops every year. Discard shells. Native crops have also been altered. For centuries, the Choctaw people have been noted for our beautiful and utilitarian river cane basketry. make the vegetable oil. Climbing or pole beans wrap upwards around the corn stalks, while the large squash leaves help to keep competitive plants out and shade the ground, and therefore provide moisture and protection for the corn roots. The Miko was delighted with what he called the sweet meat. and pound them into a flour. and maygrass (e.g. brought be the Spanish in the 1500s, it was quickly incorporated hides, and buried foods in the earth and baked them. Nowadays, these special dresses will be only worn during special occasions. Surplus corn was stored by hanging the husks in placed in storage pits. The Chickasaw, who often sent slaving raids against As colonization's unbalanced relationship with the land spread, the traditional foodways of Tribal communities were largely replaced with the Standard American Diet. and stroke that significantly shortens lives and lowers the quality These life-supporting plants were given to the people when all three miraculously sprouted from the body of Sky Woman's daughter, granting the gift of agriculture to the Iroquois nations. leaving behind the "hickory milk". Nipi Shila, (a Choctaw term that used to refer to a stick and hold over a fire until done. When rivercane was everywhere, Choctaw people transformed it into numerous objects for everyday life. With contact with the United States in the late Ahelusa, "Black Potato," is made from the roots of previously unsettled land in order to better graze their livestock. a traditional Choctaw stew thickener, and a vital ingredient in Chahtas liked tachi so much that tachi and pork replaced their previous favorite dish of bear meat and acorns. recipes for traditional Choctaw foods, which, based on their Shortly afterwards, Chahtas families planted tachi every spring, harvested in the fall and learned to dry the kernels and to cook tachi in a variety of ways. We dropped processed foods from our diet and began focusing on vegetables fruits, and legumes, particularly the ones that our Choctaw ancestors had eaten. changed through time. They In return, the Choctaws and other Southeastern and The code was never broken even after the War. The surprised hunters then ate the remainder of the rabbit and waited through the night to return to where they found her. Agriculture, Forest Food and Fiber Use, and Burning Practices of the Choctaw Indians Pre-European Contact - Mid 1700's . agriculturalists of all of the Southeastern Tribes (Romans 1770). Together, we've been. He then discovered that shukhusi had a family of small piglets, whom he took with him on the rest of the hunt and then back to his home. bean pods. one Choctaw oral tradition, corn was given to the Choctaw people by To the Iroquois people, corn, beans, and squash are the Three Sisters, the physical and spiritual sustainers of life. to create this month's column and a list of works cited. two lbs or two large handfuls); 1 cup water; 1 cup shortening (melted); 6 eggs. sunflower. The combination of peas and cornmeal produces a complete protein, so banaha provided a high energy meal for hungry farm laborers. Through this work, and also our day jobs, we strive to support Choctaw Nation government and community efforts to revitalize Indigenous food. The bear oil could be used for cooking, curing, or rubbing on rheumatic parts of the body. These were boiled in scarcity, bread was sometimes made from flour created from boiled An agricultural society is one that relies on The white-fleshed roots from the full of tannic acid and inedible. The oldest He cared for the piglets as they grew into hogs. Beginning around 4200 BC, Southeastern Choctaw cooks usually serve fried salt pork along with banaha to add flavor to the dish. Afterward, the corn Burial traditions of the Choctaw Nation in Oklahoma are some of the best-documented Native American rituals by Europeans and early Americans. Upon its completion, the book was gifted to the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. Employment verifications for all household members who are age 18 years or older (retirement, TANF, unemployment benefits, workers compensation, social security benefits, SSI, DHS, or child support received). world. Every day, their lifeway brought them into direct contact with the plants, animals, soil and water of our unique homeland in present-day western Alabama and eastern Mississippi. This book draws upon 30 years of hands-on work to learn Choctaw traditional arts (like the art of making functional traditional cooking pots). Choctaw Nation sells it here. These story tell of how quickly important the animals and food sources became to the tribes. It is not usual for cooks to bake biscuits in covered iron pots banked in the embers of the fire. If they are gathered too soon, they will be over winter. Melt 1/4 cup plus 2 tablespoons butter in a large saucepan . A properly maintained garden of Three Sisters can help ward off night time visitors such as raccoons, deer and rabbits because of the densely-grown vegetation (although I have found that prairie dogs and moles are apparently undeterred even by fencing that extends two feet under the ground) and a shelter for birds. Okshush, "Acorn Pudding" is made by mixing acorn elements, including an intimate knowledge of local fish, shell Like this Map for my kids, and it also has the Easy Native American Recipes that we were looking for. These cleaned kernels can be dried or put Through roughly 300 pages of text, over 150 color images, and 90 recipes for Indigenous Choctaw food dishes, it presents deep culture and history in a way that is practical enough that anyone can use it to bring Indigenous Choctaw food back to the dinner table. Poke salet, sheep shank, sour dock, lambs quarters and wild onions were available for harvesting. their traditional stews and wheat flour. as Indian Tacos, include not a single ingredient that was in our cooked beans if desired. The Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR) is a jointly funded program between the USDA and the Choctaw Nation. The Miko then remained Achafa Chipota Pelichi Shukhusithe tamer of pigsand he was given the task of instructing Choctaw families how to raise hogs. Remove and partially dry. CHOCTAW HUNTER'S STEW provided by fresh persimmons. As we would later learn, other colonized communities from around the world have experienced a similar improvement in health, when they have returned to their own traditional foods. starchy tubers like greenbrier roots, and welcomed the Vitamin C Upon returning to the site, the two hunters found in the snow a green plant over six feet tall with a golden tassel at the top. Most of the food of the Choctaw includes crops of corn, beans, and squash. that the variety of bottle gourd that was brought to the Americas Chapter 1 traces the development of Choctaw food, culture, and the landscapes of the Choctaw homeland across 15,000 years. planted, tended, and harvested their crops. One of the main goals of Nan Awaya Farm is to recover sleeping knowledge that can help our community bring Indigenous Choctaw cuisine back to the dinner table. saved. Uksak Alhanta, "literally mixed hickory nuts": Each of these groups borrowed and shared foods with the methods have also been used by Choctaws for thousands of years to the addition of hickory nutmeat instead of peas or beans. pattern and seasonal schedule to focus on growing these crops as Hvsh Mali or Mahili (Month of the winds) saw warmer winds from the southeast and patches of green began to show. Choctaws contributed several essential Lye (wood ash) is added and the boiling corroborated that such giant and powerful animals as the mastadon Hvsh tek ihvshi (Month of the woman) was when young women were courted (although they were presumably courted during other times, as well). collecting large amounts of wild plant foods and nuts, as well as world-wide. Swanton cites a Chahta source, Simpson Tubbee, as saying that Indian flint or flour corn contained both white and blue kernels and was used for roasting. domesticated by 2800 BC, marsh elder by 1900 BC, and chenopod by Corn shucks (boil about 10 minutes before using.) Choctaw people today. Amy and Ian Thompson are a couple with a passion for reawakening Choctaw traditional knowledge in a way that can improve quality of life in today's world. This work is personal. colonizers brought a number of new domesticated crops and animals the Choctaw were the most productive agricultural producers in the 2216, An authorized web site of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, Texas, Louisiana Choctaws learn about history, culture, April Marks 200th Anniversary of Choctaw Nation Exploration, Broken Bow Stickball Field Honors Man who Helped Keep Chahta Culture Alive, Passage of the Stigler Act Amendments of 2018 a Huge Win for the Five Tribes, Charles McIntyre Shares Story of a Lifetime of Helping People, Ireland recognizes gift from Choctaw Nation during potato famine, Trail of Tears from Mississippi walked by our ancestors, The lessons of Choctaw teacher, Dorothy Jean Ward Henson, Viola Durant McCurtain share her experience as a Choctaw, Sustaining a vision protecting what is Choctaw, Sustaining a vision putting people and praise first, Sustaining a vision a leader with a green thumb, Congressional Gold Medals awarded in honor of WWI, WWII Code Talkers, Paying respect to the ancestors who blazed the trail, Biskinik Archive (History, News, Iti Fabvssa), Father William Henry Ketchum Part 2 - November 2017, Father William Henry Ketcham Part 1 - September 2017, Iti Fabssa Sketches of Choctaw Men in 1828 and 1830, The Gear and Daily Life of the Choctaw Lighthorsemen, The Role of Choctaw Leaders: Past and Present, The History of the Great Seal of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, Our ancient neighbors from the past into the present, Preservation and remembrance: Choctaw heirloom seeds, Ancestors of the Choctaws and the spiritual history of the mounds, Choctaws and the War of 1812: A high point in relations with the U.S. (Part II), Choctaws and the War of 1812: A high point in relations with the U.S. (Part I), Keeping old man winter at bay the Choctaw way, Choctaw resistance to removal from ancient homeland (Part IV), Choctaw resistance to removal from ancient homeland (Part III), Choctaw resistance to removal from ancient homeland (Part II), Choctaw resistance to removal from ancient homeland (Part I), The Office of Chief and the Constitution of the Choctaw Nation, Story of a Choctaw POW comes to light after 300 years, Iyyi Kowa : A Choctaw Concept of Service, Chahta Amptoba: Choctaw Traditional Pottery (Part I), Chahta Amptoba: Choctaw Traditional Pottery (Part II), Chahta Amptoba: Choctaw Traditional Pottery (Part III), Chahta Amptoba: Choctaw Traditional Pottery (Part IV). "Nipi Shila". Women The givers and supporters of life, Early Choctaw settlement discovered in Mississippi, Revitalization of Choctaw Stickball in Oklahoma, Traditional Choctaw Agriculture (Part II), Choctaw Nation and the American Civil War. It compares and contrasts these with today's cutting edge efforts towards sustainability. $250,000. interaction can be a forerunner of agriculture, it is not As one might expect, by this time the food supplies have dwindled and game animals were difficult to find. (2018). Their meat was dried into jerky and reportedly lasted through the winter. shift has lead to an epidemic of obesity, diabetes, heart disease, One member of household must have CDIB or tribal membership card from any federally recognized tribe, Copy of SSN card for all household occupants. Some cooks use chicken, others pork, and still others a combination of the two. This article many communities appear to have changed their ancient residence The Choctaws, or Chahtas, are a Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States. As we would later learn, other colonized communities from around the world have experienced a similar improvement in health, when they have returned to their own traditional foods., The results of Ian's research to bring the fragmented pieces of knowledge surrounding the Indigenous Choctaw foodway back together have been condensed into a book entitled "Choctaw Food: Remembering the Land, Rekindling Ancient Knowledge". It has been honored as a "significant contribution to the Choctaw people" through Tribal Council resolution. Tie in the middle with corn husk string. The same process may also be Such a form of permaculture would have required a lot less work To this, may be added The Choctaw Chapter 3 introduces dozens of native plants and animals that provided important ingredients for Choctaw food, pulling in species-specific traditional knowledge, nutritional information, and tips on how to procure these ingredients today. agriculture early on may be that they already produced plenty of Join our family farm on its journey to help revitalize traditional Choctaw food, restore native landscapes, reconnect community to the land, and enliven the culture of our Indigenous ancestors. 1 Chahta Imillimpa (Choctaw Traditional Food) By Dr. Ian Thompson, Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma Historic Preservation Dept. For generations, Mississippi Choctaws grew vegetables, raised livestock, hunted and fished to put food on the table. environment, increasing the amount of edible plants that could Okchi or Walakshi. Beans, another domesticated food from Mexico, Within the last century, the /* 728x15 link ad */ were capable of tearing down trees. them better foods. leaves in water and boil for a short time. racks over the fire, boiled foods in containers made of animal Add water until mixture is stiff enough to handle easily. Families and friends come together around the table to celebrate birthdays, weddings, and reunions. years ago on the meat from now-extinct animals. changes in the diets of most Choctaw people. Truly "traditional" indigenous recipes contain no Old World foods, and that means no fry bread, pasta, pies, cakes, nor any other dish containing wheat, flour, domestic sheep (not bighorn sheep--Ovis canadensis), beef, pigs, goats, milk, cheese, chicken, or butter. This technique avoids the work Konopik 2007). She told them to return the next morning to where they found her and then she vanished. She explained that she was the daughter of Hashtali (Sun Father) and Moon Mother, and while she was on an errand for them, she ran out of food and became too weak to continue. deer jerky making demonstrations at the Choctaw Labor Day Festival. The results of Ian's research to bring the fragmented pieces of knowledge surrounding the Indigenous Choctaw foodway back together have been condensed into a book entitled "Choctaw Food: Remembering the Land, Rekindling Ancient Knowledge". Variations include adding beans or cracked hickory nuts. . Pick out meat. domesticated plants or animals. Dip water over the acorns until the bitterness leaves. been selected in place of the old, more nutritious native seed Choctaw food | Nan Awaya Farmstead | United States Nan Awaya Farm Join our family farm on its journey to help revitalize traditional Choctaw food, restore native landscapes, reconnect community to the land, and enliven the culture of our Indigenous ancestors. onions, garlic, tomatoes, and peppers. check out the book frybread past present and future,,,it contains over 200 recipies,,,including pumpkin! Church meetings and school spring festivals include community meals. grapes and blackberries, grains like sumpweed seeds, and oily changes to the Choctaw diet. Beds. The transition to an agricultural society was a Today, traditional food dishes like tanchilabonna wild acorn and nut-producing trees such as oak, hickory, and pecan. Hvsh Hoponi: Month of cooking, when the gardens had to be harvested and the food stored in some way, either dried or cooked. Forest County Potawatomi Tanchi Vlwasha "fried corn", Tanchi Apusha "roasted corn", Pvlvska Nusi Pvlvska, "Acorn Bread": Hull live oak acorns varieties. Most notably, this includes the Three Sisters, grape dumplings and pashofa. It was being grown in Mexico by 10,000 years ago, for generations. This article and others came from the Choctaw Nation Mix have been perfecting cuisine to satisfy their families' appetites By the start of the Trail of Tears in 1830, the Choctaw cattle herd BC, eventually becoming today's summer squash. Tie in middle with corn shuck string, or use oblong white rags 8 x 10 inches, cut from an old sheet. Within three months of making this transition, Amy was out of the diabetic range, and we had lost 70 pounds between us. These were eventually given to the rest of the Choctaws raised poultry and transported it 120 miles to market in shucks", Bvla Okchi "bean porridge", and Bvla Hobbi "boiled According to Not coincidently, the most important today: Tanchi Lakchi "corn grits", Ampi Hobi "corn on the cob", Similar bread can also be Pumpkin and May was a busy month for Choctaw people 300 years They exported the produce back to their Anglo-American neighbors. seed varieties, and minimally processed Choctaw dishes that have Traditional Choctaw food- Banaha: 2 cups cornmeal, 1 1/2 cup boiling water, 1 teaspoon soda, 1 teaspoon salt, corn husks (boil about 10 minutes before using). people selectively manipulate the reproduction of a group of plants In addition to already-familiar foods like tortillas, salmon, shellfish, and venison, traditional foods containing beans, squash, and corn are getting renewed attention. They had long Amy and Ian Thompson are a couple with a passion for reawakening Choctaw traditional knowledge in a way that can improve quality of life in today's world. This location potatoes were sometimes cooked in the coals of a fire. 576 Sq. Pregnant lady was starving and nothing in the cupboard needed something sweet:)-added some sugar and vanilla to recipe to sweeten up the basic recipeotherwise i thought i was frying thick papermache mix.. ----Native American Fry Bread----. food dishes that our ancestors ate at this very early date, their centers, to increase the health of our communities. planted together) was so great to ancestral Choctaw people that Over the next 800 years, ancestral Choctaw corn by nearly all communities across the United States, but Native Pumpkins came to the Choctaw homeland from Mexico, The stew can be flavored with lye made from corn silk or The dough is formed into masses, wrapped Similar drying Fry until the eggs are scrambled. brought onions, garlic, tomatoes, peppers horses, cattle, and hogs. The Choctaw allowed the body of the deceased to decompose naturally on an outdoor platform set away from the home. Together, we've been making and using traditional Choctaw cooking implements and doing experiments with food prep and land management at Nan Awaya Farm. communities began to domesticate some of the native plants that would be feasts of fresh vegetables. it has soured. exported the produce back to their Anglo-American neighbors. So that they could trade with other tribes, they had enough supply of surplus products. A list of the works next time we're craving an Extra Value Meal, or an ice cream cone, Next, the corn is tossed in an open-ended basket called a fanner to loosen the hulls even more. Using traditional motifs today creates a unique and special link to the ingenuity and creativity of Choctaws of the past. Pour off water and boil In the creation of Cajun cuisine, the French contributed the 1770s many Choctaws left their old towns and spread out onto recipes along the way, and outlining the important influences that Chahtas continued to perform the Green Corn Dance well after they had been introduced to Christianity, and like many other Natives today, some Chahtas continue to dance every summer. into flour. Choctaw Stickball is alive and well in many communities throughout the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma and the equipment is used as a way to teach children about working together. did live on Choctaw homeland (until perhaps 12,000 years ago), but tradition, it physically originated in Mesoamerica. into the Choctaw homeland. Amy and Ian Thompson are a couple with a passion for reawakening Choctaw traditional knowledge in a way that can improve quality of life in today's world. Today, Choctaws still prepare hominy outside when cooking for large groups, not only because it is traditional, but because it is still the best way to ensure a proper cooking time. Native American flutes Have water in pot ready. boarding schools, commodity rations, changes in cooking technology Choctaw foods. women collected leaves from young, succulent plants such as poke, Cover and cook for 40 min. successfully raising leeks, garlic, cabbage, hogs, chicken, and Chapter 5 is an Indigenous Choctaw cookbook. groups (Fritz 2008:334). a porridge. Those who preserved potatoes in this manner were called the Ahi apet okla: potato eating people.. A story: A long time ago there was a small Chahta boy named Achafa Chipota who, despite his stature, ran faster and had better aim with his bow than any other child. Traditions Pottery Like any art form, the design and symbolism of Choctaw pottery is subjective. Today, as in the past, many Choctaws draw a part of our perhaps we could realistically consider the possibility of instead Tribes proposed to purchase a variety of products including meats, fish, grains and fresh produce. paste is made into cakes, which are fried in bear's oil. Serve hot. These ingredients are stirred into a mush and molded into small rectangles that will fit in the palm of the cook's hand. Cajun gumbo. Here is a website with more information about Indian foods . The roots are dug up, collected, and washed. A true American original, this world-class ethnic food has influenced several of todays most popular styles of cooking. The spread They should be. ham, beef, peaches, or watermelon, exist because of early Form small oblong balls the size of a tennis ball and wrap in corn shucks. To hear an in-depth conversation with them about Nan Awaya Farm, please visit Native ChocTalk. For those who have been patiently waiting on this book to come out, thank you. Amy and Ian Thompson are a couple with a passion for reawakening Choctaw traditional knowledge in a way that can improve quality of life in today's world. beans". Using traditional motifs today creates a unique and special link to the ingenuity and creativity of Choctaws of the past. They were made from materials Indigenous to Choctaw lands, and transformed through Choctaw traditional knowledge into objects that are simultaneously Choctaw art and survival gear, both a Choctaw heritage and a future legacy. I am 1/2 Cherokee on dad's side and 1/2 Die . First American Printing & Direct Mail, Inc. The Chickasaw Nation from Oklahoma The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians from Mississippi Project implementation began in October 2021 with some contracts expected to last up to three years. making and using traditional Choctaw cooking implements and doing experiments with food prep and land management at Nan Awaya Farm. Traditional Choctaw Cooking Banaha Making Cooking the Cherokee Way with Betty Jo Smith Traditional Choctaw Cooking Banaha Making Cooking the Cherokee Way with Betty Jo Smith Traditional Choctaw Cooking Banaha Making Cooking the Cherokee Way with Betty Jo Smith American Indian Health - Recipes - University of Kansas best aihd.ku.edu They boiled the nita nia (bear fat) and nita nipi (bear flesh) and then stored it in deer bladders or plugged deer heads.
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